The Influence of Age Cohorts and Social Networks on the Language Choices of the Non-Indigenous Tamil Minority in Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
Main Article Content
Abstract
This paper reports on the application of age cohorts to the theory of social networks in a study of language choices of Tamil city dwellers in Kuching, Sarawak located on the island of Borneo. This study, which adopts Milroy’s (1980) social networks, focuses mainly on code choices made in the spoken discourse of multilingual Tamils of different age cohorts. Our analysis of data gathered from a one-shot survey and supported by face-to-face interviews shows variations in code choices by age cohort. Code selections within and across the different age cohorts in the home and friendship domains denote the influence of age and social networks among minority Tamils.
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Audrey, W. 2008. The minority Kuching Hindus celebrates Deepavali. Borneo Post (14 October): 16.
Chang, P.F. 2002. History of Bidayuh in Kuching Division Sarawak. Kuching: Lee Ming Press Co.
Clyne, M. 1976. Australia Talks: Essays on Australian immigrant and aboriginals languages. Canberra: Department of Linguistics, Australian National University.
David, M.K. 1999. Language shift amongst the Sindhis of Malaysia. South Pacific Journal of Psychology (Special Issue: Asia-Pacific Language Research) 10(1): 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0257543400001012
______.2001. The Sindhis of Malaysia: A sociolinguistic account. London: Asean Academic Press.
______. 2003. Language maintenance or language shift in a rural Malaysian setting? Urdu in Machang, Kelantan. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 161: 47–54.
______. 2005. The network theory and language maintenance: A study of three communities in Peninsular Malaysia. In Creating outsiders: Endangered languages, migration and marginalization, eds. N. Crawhall and N. Ostler, 153–157. Bath: Foundation for Endangered Languages.
______. 2006. Language choices and discourse of Malaysian families: Case studies of families in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information and Research Development Centre (SIRD).
______. 2009. The importance of a historical perspective in language shift studies: Focus on minority groups in Kuching. Paper presented at the Indian Cultural Seminar, 29 March 2009, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
David, M.K. and Dealwis, C. 2006. Close and dense networks: Do they lead to maintenance of the ethnic language? Focus on the Telegu community in Kuching, Sarawak. Migracijske i etni?ke teme (Migration and Ethnic Themes) 22(4): 343–361.
______. 2009. Reasons for assimilation: Focus on the Indian Muslims in Kuching, Malaysia. Migracijske i etni?ke teme (Migration and Ethnic Themes) 25(1–2): 35–48.
David, M.K. and Noor, F. 1999. Language maintenance or language shift in the Portuguese Settlement of Malacca in Malaysia? Migracijske i etni?ke teme (Migration and Ethnic Themes) 15(4): 465–481.
David, M.K., Abdullah, A., Rafik-Galea, S. and Mclellan, J. 2009. Code switching in Malaysia. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
David, M.K., Dealwis, C. and Alagappar, P.N. 2011. Ethnic identity in the Tamil community of Kuching. In National language planning and language shifts in Malaysian minority communities: Speaking in many tongues (IIAS/ICAS Publications Series), eds. D. Mukherjee and M.K. David, 43–58. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam Press.
David, M.K., Naji, I. and Kaur, S. 2003. Language maintenance or language shift among the Punjabi Sikh community in the Klang Valley, Malaysia? International Journal of the Sociology of Language 161: 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.2003.026
Dealwis, C. and David, M.K. 2010. In search of an identity: Children of Indian-Bidayuh mixed marriages. In Ethnic relations and nation building, eds. M.K. David et al., 145–162. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information and Research Development Centre (SIRD).
Demos, V. 1988. Ethnic mother-tongue maintenance among Greek Orthodox Americans. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 69: 9–72. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.1988.69.59
Department of Statistics Malaysia. 2009. Monthly Statistical Bulletin Sarawak, June 2009. Sarawak: Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad.
Downes, W. 1984. Language and society. London: Fontana. Emerson, R. 1973. Malaysia: A study in direct and indirect rule. London: Macmillan.
Fasold, R. 1984. The sociolinguistics of society. Oxford: Blackwell.
Ferguson, C.A. 1959. Diglossia. Word 15: 325–340. https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.1959.11659702
Fishman, J.A. 1972. The sociology of language. Newbury: Rowley.
Gal, S. 1979. Language shift: Social determinants of language change in bilingual Austria. New York: Academic Press.
Govindasamy, M. and Nambiar, M. 2002. Social networks: Applicability to minority communities in multilingual settings. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 161: 25–45.
Gumperz, J. 1982. Discourse strategies. New York: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511611834
Heller, M. 1988. Code-switching: Anthropological and sociolinguistic perspectives. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110849615
Lieberson, S. 1965. Bilingualism in Montreal: A demographic analysis. American Journal of Sociology 71(1): 10–25. https://doi.org/10.1086/223989
Mills, L.A. 1941. British rule in Eastern Asia. New York: Russell & Russell.
Milroy, L. 1980. Language and social networks. Oxford: Blackwell.
______. 1987. Observing and analyzing natural language. Oxford: Blackwell.
Mukherjee, D. 2003. Role of women in language maintenance and language shift: Focus on the Bengali community in Malaysia. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 161: 103–120.
Mukherjee, D. and David, M.K. (eds.). 2011. National language planning and language shifts in Malaysian minority communities: Speaking in many tongues. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
Nambiar, M.K. 2007. Language shift in the Malayalee community: A study of intra group variations. PhD dissertation, University of Malaya, Malaysia.
Sankar, L.V. 2004. Language shift and maintenance among the Malaysian Iyer. PhD dissertation, University of Malaya, Malaysia.
Saravanan, V. 1998. Language maintenance and language shift in the Tamil community. In Language society and education in Singapore, ed. S. Gopinathan, 155–176. Singapore: Times Academic Press.
Saxena, M. 2003. Investigating language maintenance and shift among non-indigenous minorities: Age-grading and or age-cohort analysis. In Methodological and analytical issues in language maintenance and shift studies, ed. M.K. David, 121–143. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Tate, M.D. 2008. The Malaysian Indians: History, problems and future. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information and Research Development Centre (SIRD).
Wallwork, J.F. 1978. Language and people. London: Heinemann Educational Books.