Hajj and the Malayan Experience, 1860s–1941

Abstract

Contrary to popular belief, the hajj is a high-risk undertaking for both pilgrims and administrators. For the Malay states, the most vexing problem for people from the mid-nineteenth century until the Second World War was the spread of epidemics that resulted from passenger overcrowding on pilgrim ships. This had been a major issue in Europe since the 1860s, when the international community associated the hajj with the outbreak and spread of infectious diseases. Accusations were directed at various parties, including the colonial administration in the Straits Settlements and the British administration in the Malay states. This article focuses on epidemics and overcrowding on pilgrim ships and the resultant pressure on the British, who were concerned that the issue could pose a threat to their political position, especially when the Muslim community in the Malay states had become increasingly exposed to reformist ideas from the Middle East following the First World War.